Abstract Contemporary
discussions of the problem of ugliness in Kant’s aesthetic theory have, to my
knowledge, left unexplored the relation of disgust to ugliness. At most, they have explained away disgust as merely
an extreme form of ugliness or displeasure, as Guyer did in his interpretation
of ugliness in Kant’s aesthetic theory,[1]
and by that strayed from the phenomenological and conceptual uniqueness of
disgust in comparison to ugliness, while Kant, as I argue, did not. As a matter of fact, careful investigation of
the concept of disgust in Kant’s writing will reveal the distinctive and
multifaceted character that he ascribed to this phenomenon. By examining Kant’s treatment of disgust in
comparison with more comprehensive contemporary studies given by
phenomenologist Aurel Kolnai, psychologist Paul Rozin, and the social study of
William Ian Miller, I will address the ways in which disgust can penetrate artistic
representation without subverting it and, more closely, interrogate the role of
disgust in contemporary art. Furthermore, within Kant’s aesthetic framework,
I will suggest a theoretical difference between disgust and the concept of
aesthetic ugliness.
Key Words aesthetic
appreciation, beauty, contemporary art, disgust, Kant’s aesthetics, ugliness
1. The Concept of Disgust: An Overview of Kant’s Treatment of Disgust in Comparison
with Contemporary Studies
Whereas
Kant did not give any theoretical explanation of the concept of disgust, he did
nevertheless anticipate symptoms that accompany it and that have been adopted
in the contemporary analysis as fundamental conditions of disgust. Going beyond linking the phenomenon of disgust
with oral consumption, the idea of disgust in Kant’s analysis also encompasses ethical
conditions, and thus it is introduced as a rather complex phenomenon. Above all, he expounded the concept of
disgust by examining its aesthetic implications in artistic representation. A brief exposition in §48 of the Critique of Judgment reveals a rich
insight into the nature of disgust: “For
in this singular sensation, which rests on mere imagination, the object is
represented as it were obtruding itself for our enjoyment, while we strive
against it with all our might. And the
artistic representation of the object is no longer distinguished from the
nature of the object itself in our sensation, and thus it is impossible that it
can be regarded as beautiful.”[2]
There are two particularly striking features
that must be stressed: (1) disgust’s
imposing nature, and (2) the anti-aesthetic effect resulting from it. Let me begin with the first one.
The
fact that the object of disgust has the ability to impose upon us, especially
through its visual representation, indicates its indispensable relationship with
sense experience. This is taken later on,
in contemporary examinations, as a condition sine qua non of disgust, particularly its elemental relation with
the senses of taste and smell. In the Anthropology, Kant characterizes disgust
as a vital sensation connected particularly with the “lower” senses of smell
and taste. Compared to the “higher” class
of senses (touch, sight, and hearing), smell and taste do not contribute to the
cognition of objects, but are more related with producing pleasure: “…the idea obtained from them is more a
representation of enjoyment.”[3]
That is, smell and taste are less
responsible for perceiving the surface of an object than they are pleasure-related
senses; that is, linked with the oral intake. Because such intake is less free in the case
of smell than in taste and since we cannot choose entirely what will be taken
in, the aversion through smell is particularly forced on our enjoyment: “For taking something in through smell (in the
lungs) is even more intimate than taking something in through the absorptive
vessels of mouth or throat.”[4]
The intimacy of the intake is
conditioned by the fact that smell more directly consumes the material feature of
the object than taste does, and thus provokes disgust more straightforwardly as
a defensive physiological reaction manifested through nausea or vomiting. “Therefore it happens that nausea, an impulse
to free oneself of food through the shortest way out of the esophagus (to
vomit), has been allotted to the human being as such a strong vital sensation.”[5]
Disgust’s biological relation to the
sense of taste and smell, as well as its dependence on direct sensory information about the object, is well
established here.
Paul
Rozin refers to such food-related emotion as “core disgust,” and defines it as
“[r]evulsion at the prospect of (oral) incorporation of an offensive object.”[6]
The offensiveness of an object, contrary
to mere bad taste or sensory dislike, intrinsically includes an idea of
contamination. He makes a considerable
step forward by suggesting that it is not necessary that the object of disgust
is actually a contaminant, but merely that the idea of it is sufficient to
provoke disgust. “Disgust is triggered
not primarily by the sensory properties of an object but by ideational concerns
about what it is, or where it has been.”[7]
For disgust to be triggered, it is
sufficient that the object be associated,
by means of other senses, with the contaminant object; for example it is highly
plausible that we will avoid eating or even touching a chocolate in the form of
excrement.
Disgust,
however, is not triggered merely through the senses of taste and smell but also
through visual perception. Kant, for
example, distinguished a type of disgust that concerns violation of ethical,
hygienic, and sexual appropriateness. He
writes, “An old woman is an object of disgust for both sexes except when she is
very clean and not [a] coquette.”[8]
Unfortunately, he does not offer any explanation
of the nature of such disgust. The most
thorough attempt to define the nature of visual disgust has been given by
contemporary writers. Paul Rozin defined
such type of disgust as “animal-reminder” disgust, which threatens particularly
through visual perception by reminding us of our animal origins. This category of disgust includes violations
of the body envelope (amputations, injuries), sexual deviations, and hygienic concerns,
that is, deviations from well established standards of cleanliness and purity in
all three spheres. “We fear recognizing
our animality because we fear that, like animals, we are mortal. We thus
attempt to hide the animality of our biological processes by defining
specifically human ways to perform them.”[9]
The phenomenological explanation of
disgust given by Aurel Kolnai alludes even more explicitly to the issue of
mortality. He interprets substances that
evoke disgust as embodying the idea of putrefaction, dissolution, decay, and rottenness,
and as being intrinsically related to the idea of transformation from living
into dead matter.[10]
Accordingly, what is inherent in the
nature of disgust is the idea of life and vitality; an object must first exist
and live in order to be decomposed into death. Only an object that evokes an idea of life can
elicit disgust, a life that is vanishing, decaying. For this reason, inorganic or non-biological
items are excluded from the subject of disgust.[11]
The
idea of an abundance of life and vitality inherent in disgust is not an exceptional one. William Miller in The Anatomy of Disgust interprets disgust as a reaction mechanism
against a surplus of unconscious and conscious pleasures. While the first type functions as a blockade
of unconscious desires, the second one punishes the gluttony of it; it is “a
time-activated barrier that judges (usually too slowly) when enough has been
enough.”[12]
Disgust originating from the excess or
overindulgence of pleasure and vitality was also emphasized by Kant: “The
disgusting is excess. Very sweet or fat.”[13]
Furthermore, it does not arise merely
from oral consumption but also from intellectual or mental enjoyment: “…there is also a mental pleasure, which
consists in the communication of thoughts. But if it is forced on us (…) the mind finds
it repulsive (as in the constant repetition of would-be flashes of wit or
humor, whose sameness can be unwholesome to us).”[14]
Disgust, in this case, also functions as
a defense reaction; it serves as a protector from “drowning in pleasure.”[15]
In this “satiated disgust” the object
does not simply cease to be pleasant, but the accumulation of enjoyment itself
presupposes its own failing. “One cannot
say that what we have here is simply a pleasure that has ceased to be
pleasurable; rather, that the pleasure involved becomes merely shallow, barren,
reduced to a state where it is in perceptible contrast with the will to life of
the person.”[16]
Kolnai, who favors the explanation of
disgust as inherent in satiation, interprets excess of pleasure as a surplus of
vitality, an exaggeration of an aspect of life such as aggressiveness,
brutality, and sexuality, all of them “disorderly, unclean, clammy, the
unhealthy excess of life.”[17]
Common
to all such interpretations is an understanding of disgust as a product of
cultural and social determination. Beside
animal-reminder disgust that has roots in social preferences for distinguishing
the rational side from the animal one, psychological studies of “core” or food-related
disgust have shown that it is not so much a biological instinct against
contaminated objects but more a result of cultivation. “Disgust may have some roots in evolution, but
it is also clearly a cultural product. Like
language and sexuality, the adult form of disgust varies by culture, and
children must be “trained-up” in the local rules and meaning.”[18]
Kant anticipated the necessity of
cultural and social conditions for disgust’s existence long before: “We also find that disgust at filth is only
present in cultivated nations; the uncultivated nation has no qualms about
filth.
Cleanliness demonstrates the
greatest human cultivation, since it is the least natural human quality,
causing much exertion and hardship.”[19]
The idea that the boundaries of disgust
(what offends and what not) are culturally and socially determined demarcates
the displeasure of disgust from the mere unpleasantness of sensations
(distaste), and thus defines it as a high cognitive emotion. Whether the object has the quality of being disgusting
is determined by the culturally developed ideas of physical and moral
contamination. Hence, as Miller
concludes, a feeling of disgust, even though highly physiologically effective
and visceral, is nevertheless an emotion “connected to ideas, perceptions, and
cognitions and to the social and cultural context in which it makes sense to
have those feelings and ideas.”[20]
An
explanation of disgust as originating from the decline of vitality, life, and
pleasure reveals its compelling and ambivalent nature. In spite of the initial rejection of the
object of disgust, we are, on the other hand, attracted to it (there is a
special appeal in watching horror movies, peeking at disgusting events such as
car accidents, or visiting disgusting art exhibitions). It is not merely curiosity or a peculiar
pleasure that we have in the transgression of standards but the pleasure that is
contained in disgust itself that allures us. The phenomenon of fascination with disgust and
its celebration in mainstream art can thus be explained by dissecting its very
ambivalent character: desire and displeasure. However, the latter moment must, in the end, prevail
in order to evoke repulsion in order to judge an object as disgusting. Disgust
is after all a defense mechanism (in its purest form indicated by nausea and a
tendency to vomit) against threatening (contaminated) objects. Although the insinuation of fear does not have
rational validity, it is nevertheless inherently present in disgust. Fear of being contaminated (defiled,
dishonored) by the repulsive object guides our rejection of it: “…every
feeling of disgust, without necessarily including fear, yet alludes to it
somehow.”[21]
But
what exactly is being fearsome and, for that matter, rejected? Not the fullness and vitality of life or pleasure
which is potent in the abhorrent object, but its decline. What is being discarded, as Kolnai writes, is
the surplus of life coming to the end of its existence; either actual decline
of living material (decomposition of body or food) or the threatening collapse
of an escalating vitality (in mental or ethical disgust), “…as if through the
surplus of life that is here so pronounced we were to become caught, as it
were, in a short-circuit towards death, as if this intensified and concentrated
life should have arisen out of an impatient longing for death, a desire to
waste away, to over-spend the energy of life, a macabre debauchery of matter.”[22]
Such an explanation of disgust as an
integration of disturbed pleasure and rejection captures its alluring nature in
many works of art.
2. The Nature
of Visual Disgust and Its Anti-aesthetic Behavior in Art
The
primal origins of disgust are to be found in the senses of smell, taste, and
touch because, as pointed out, they grasp the material essence of the object
more fully; they are properly to be regarded as the transmitters of
contamination. Nevertheless, seeing a
flying cockroach or someone picking their nose in public equally arouses
aversion, despite the fact that senses of smell, taste, and touch are not
involved in such a situation. Here we
have a genuine example of visual disgust, that is, disgust being evoked by the
mere visual appearance of the object. Even
though there is no danger of being contaminated by merely seeing a disgusting
object, the fear of being touched by it is still present, sometimes intensified
to the point of a physical reaction of nausea.
How does the idea of contamination sneak into
visual cases? One of the reasons, as Kolnai writes, is that the visual sensation
grasps the object more comprehensively and in its more fully constituted way. It represents the object’s features more
clearly and thus it is capable of bringing up the imaginative powers of other
sensations.[23]
To be repulsed by the mere sight of an
object is to be disgusted by it through the associative thinking of how the
object must be felt by tasting, touching, or smelling it. Visual cases presuppose that the imaginative
working of the other senses is necessary. The idea that the object of visual disgust is
contaminated is then brought in by linking it with other senses. Similarly, Miller points out, “[S]ight works
by suggesting the prospect of unnerving touches, nauseating tastes, and foul
odors or by suggesting contaminating processes like putrefaction and
generation.”[24]
It is not even necessary that the object
that visually evokes disgust have a bad taste or smell. Even seeing a chocolate in the form of feces,
although pleasing to taste, is still highly repulsive. The reason for this is that the mere visual
form, by associative thinking of an object that is contagious (feces), brings
up the idea that this object is also contagious, and thus elicits disgust. Similarly,
an object can look good, as, for example, a delicious looking steak, but if it
is made out of dog meat, it will nevertheless arouse disgust (in some cultures).
Such cases illustrate that visual
disgust need not be aroused by the way things look but by the fact of knowing
what the object is or what it represents.
The
behavior of visual disgust in non-fictional situations is comparable to its
effect in fictional situations, such as in the arts of painting, photography, cinematography,
the plastic arts, or performance art. As
Carl Plantinga points out, the difference is merely in the degree of disgusting
feeling and not in the type of emotion.[25]
In fictional visual representation, we
still experience disgust as a unique defense reaction manifested as nausea,
turning away from the image or even physically distancing oneself from it (as was
the most common reaction to the violent sexual scene in the movie, Irreversible (2002), by Gaspar Noe.
What
I am interested in here is the question of the validity of Kant’s thesis about
the anti-aesthetic behavior of disgust in art; that is, whether an object that excites
disgust by its visual representation necessarily fails to be aesthetically appealing.
I will reexamine this question by
considering three different types of disgust, as distinguished by Paul Rozin, and
their behavior in the case of fictional visual representation.
Let
us begin with the first one: “ ‘core’
disgust,” where repulsion is provoked by the senses of smell and taste. In this
case, there is no necessary connection that an object that excites disgust by
the mere sense of smell and taste will also excite disgust by its mere visual
appearance. For example, seeing chocolate
made with cockroaches, while otherwise orally disgusting, does not excite
visual disgust. A similar case can be found in Dieter Roth’s
work, Shit Hare, a chocolate Easter
bunny made out of excrement. While taste-disgusting,
this fact alone does not alter its visually pleasing properties.
However, such orally disgusting objects can
provoke visual aversion in the case of seeing someone eating the object. Such a reaction of visual disgust is suggested
by Kant: “The sight of other enjoying
loathsome things (for example, when the Tunguses suck out and gulp down the
mucus from their children’s nose) causes the witness to vomit, just as if such
a pleasure were forced on him.”[26]
Visual disgust is here evoked not by the
object itself that is taste-disgusting but by the image of someone consuming
that object. This illustrates a special
power of transmittance between different types of disgust, which Miller also pointed
out: “We see the thing chewed on and
swallowed; we have, in other words, muscular actions that can be
sympathetically triggered by the sight.”[27]
Visual disgust is in this case evoked by
the suggestive imaginative powers of the sense of taste, but there can be a similar
transference between visual and tactile disgust, for example, seeing someone
touching a rat.[28]
Cinematography,in particular, has recognized this principle of communication between oral and
visual disgust, and thus deliberately provokes them in horror and other intentionally
repulsive movies. Moreover, it uses this
principle to accentuate visual disgust by connecting “animal reminder” and oral
disgust. For example, in Pink Flamingos (1972) by John Waters,
the highlight of disgust is not when Crackers (Danny Mills) and Cotton (Mary
Vivian Pierce) slaughter and cut off the ear of Cookie (Cookie Mueller) but
when Divine eats it. Similarly, in the
movie Hannibal (2001) by Ridley
Scott, the most repellent scene is not when Hannibal (Anthony Hopkins) opens Paul
Krendler’s (Ray Liotta) skull and cuts out part of his brain, but when he fries
it in the pan and feeds Paul with it. The
violation of the body envelope heightens the emotion of disgust when connected with
oral consumption. This demonstrates the intrinsic
relation of disgust with the sense of taste, and in general with the sense
experience of an object.
There
are two types of disgust that are, on the other hand, more perplexing in their visual
behavior: the animal reminder and social
moral disgust. Social moral disgust is,
as Rozin writes, aversion at the violation of the “spirit envelope” or “human
dignity in the social order.”[29]
For
example, the photograph of a crucifix submerged in a glass of the artist’s
urine, called Piss Christ, by the
American artist Andres Serrano, was proclaimed by many as an offending, abhorrent
work of art for the reason that it violates the purity and holiness of
Christian faith. Nevertheless, in spite
of the moral disgust that the object elicits, the aesthetic properties of it
are not altered by such disgust; moreover, the art work itself remains
extremely pleasing aesthetically. Moral
disgust in Serrano’s art work is not caused by the sight of the object nor
solely by the knowledge that it uses the artist’s urine, but by the fact that a
crucifix is placed in the urine: something that is sacred is associated with a
bodily excretion. Serrano’s art work was
not judged as morally repugnant because of its aesthetic properties but because
of its meaning, that is, the message it conveys.
The
notion of aesthetic properties I employ here refers to the object’s formal
properties, such as the perceptual structure of the object’s elements, which, in
a Kantian spirit, brings about a self-sustaining activity of our cognitive
powers (imagination and understanding). Non-formal
properties, such as the knowledge that Serrano’s Piss Christ is submerged in urine and not colored water, do not
count as aesthetic properties. For
example, the aesthetic evaluation of Serrano’s art work can remain unchanged
even after gaining knowledge that it was made using the artist’s urine. What does change, however, is appreciation of
Serrano’s Piss Christ as an art work,
which is not determined merely by its aesthetic value but also by its other,
non-aesthetic qualities, such as the cognitive ideas it brings about, its
originality, and so on. Hence, although
the knowledge of the material used does not affect its aesthetic value, it does
affect the interpretation and judgment of it as an art work.
To
conclude, even though Serrano’s art work may be morally displeasing, this does
not affect its aesthetic properties, since the source of both feelings is
different. An art work can be judged by
its moral message, but this does not necessarily bring about its aesthetic
devaluation. This is especially evident
in the opening scene of the movie Antichrist
(2009) by Lars Von Trier. In this rich
and haunting sequence, it becomes clear that a mother, while making love to a
man, allows her child to fall from a window. Despite the reaction of moral revulsion at
this act, this does not alter our ability to recognize the striking beauty of
the scene.
The
aesthetic value of artistic representation is, however, endangered more by the
depiction of animal-reminder disgust, which elicits repulsion most entirely
through the sense of sight. For example,
depictions of disgust-provoking animals (cockroaches, rats, maggots), decaying
or mutilated bodies, or perverse sexuality do not elicit disgust through the senses
of smell and taste, but through sight. What
is more important, aversion is not provoked by the way they look (by the
arrangement of visual properties) but how we look at them as a violation of
body envelope. The
feeling of disgust, as already pointed out, depends on what the object
represents, on the meaning hidden behind it.
Nevertheless, visual disgust is highly controversial
in the realm of art because it provokes the tension between the nature of the
disgusting object and its artistic representation, which can easily collapse. When this happens, it is impossible to
aesthetically enjoy the depicted object.
It is for this reason that disgust implies aesthetic dysfunctionality. If the nature of the represented object
interferes with the artistic image, we cannot distinguish artistic
representations of that object from the nature of that object itself. Thus disgust breaks the aesthetic illusion or
what Kant calls disinterested reflection, which is necessary for the successful
aesthetic representation of an object. We
can no longer distinguish between the cognitive effect of the real existence of
that object and its mere representation; hence the aesthetic reflection is
destroyed.[30]
As
already mentioned, even the mere visual representation of the disgusting object
is deeply experienced sensibly and it evokes a feeling of nearness that, in the
end, is responsible for an aesthetic collapse
and, consequently, the inability to find the object aesthetically pleasurable. Such anti-aesthetic effect of visual disgust
is captured well by art works such as Sex
and Death, by Chapman Brothers, depicting the skull of the corpse with a
red clown nose covered by snails, maggots, spider, snakes, and flies. The nature of the object as realistically
represented in the work obstructs any possibility of finding this work
aesthetically attractive. A similar
anti-aesthetic eruption of the portrayal of mutilated bodies, coprophagia,
physical violation, sexual degradation, urophilia, and humiliation of moral
dignity is evident in the infamous movie, The
120 of Sodom, by Pier Pasolini. While
some have judged it a masterpiece because of the idea it embodies and its
technical aspects, the movie is visually hard to follow and is enjoyed because
of its abhorrent visual attributes.
What
exactly is the disruptive factor that determinates the negative aesthetic
evaluation of such works? One reason
lies in the realistic manner with which the disgusting object is presented: its nature is forced more strongly on the artistic
representation. This could explain why,
for example, Frida Kahlo’s painting, Las
Dos Fridas (1939), does not disturb, in spite of its use of animal-reminder
disgust (violation of the body envelope). It skillfully beautifies the object
with colors, lines, and shades so that disgusting depiction that remains is
merely a shadow. While the painting
still represents a discomforting subject matter, it is nevertheless a
pleasurable one. This explains further
why depiction of disgusting objects in photography provokes rejection more
directly than in painting. This is because
the nature of the object is more sensibly presented and thus more easily provokes
our imaginative powers, on which disgust depends.
However,
such a technique of beautification is not the only method of overcoming disgust
for there are many examples of art works of extraordinary beauty in spite of the
vivid and cruel depictions of repulsive objects. Slavenka Drakulić, in the novel The Taste of a Man, describes an event
in which the protagonist murders, slaughters, and eats parts of the body of her
beloved man with such an explicit description that would in ordinary cases
provoke repulsion, yet in this case renders the enjoyment beautiful. It is not merely the intelligent style with
which this episode is written that furthers the suspension of the disgust’s
anti-aesthetic effect but the context of the depicted object. We are not confronted here with a mere body
violation for its own sake because of the protagonist’s mere enjoyment in the brutality,
but because this act embodies an idea of spiritual sacrifice. Defiance of the body, which would in an
ordinary case excite disgust, as an animal reminder reaction, is in this case associated
with the idea of love. The context of
the disgusting object alters the feeling with which we enter into it.[31]
Many
art works illustrate that disgust’s anti-aesthetic
effect and our receptivity to those works can be suspended either by stylistic
control or by connecting the object with ideas. These latter are contrary to the reminder of animality
that marks the object, and emphasizes rationality, love, moral and ethical
dignity, and humanity, thus imbuing the object with a more profound meaning. This is one of the reasons, I argue, that Kant
insists on the importance of aesthetic ideas in art. The influence of aesthetic ideas is not just in
prolonging and enhancing pure formal aesthetic pleasure, which has a tendency
to exhaust itself if not connected to rational ideas. As an embodiment of the ideas of reason, the
ideas have the capacity to transubstantiate the displeasure of disgust into aesthetic
enjoyment.
An
experience of disgust is a strong emotional reaction. Even though the object is perceived only by sight,
its strong sensuous nature gives an impression of its nearness, increasing the feeling
of being threatened by it and making us reject it. In general, the feeling of disgust is
described as the most visceral emotion of all, being essentially tied to
sensory experience. A disgusting object,
even though perceived merely visually, affects all our senses and, as Miller
writes, “invokes the sensory experience of what it feels like to be put in
danger by the disgusting, of what it feels like to be close to it, to have to
smell it, or touch it.”[32]
Because of this feeling of sensory
nearness, disgust acts anti-aesthetically. Since it prevents the possibility of
distinguishing between the nature of the object and its artistic
representation, it makes it impossible to perceive it in the mode of
disinterested reflection. This means
that such an object does not satisfy the condition of falling under reflective
evaluation at all, and thus cannot be possibly regarded as beautiful. Nevertheless, the possibility of overcoming
disgust is intriguing for resolving the problem of so-called “abject art” and
the opportunity of appreciating it positively. The disgusting, after all, is not a formal defect
but by its very nature contains something that captivates and fascinates.
What
I am interested in here is the question of how the embodiment of disgust in art
works functions aesthetically. Accordingly,
two different types of the “incarnation” of disgust can be distinguished: (1) art that manipulates the depiction of the
disgusting for its own sake, and (2) art works in which the disgusting subject
material is extrinsic to the purpose of art.
3. Disgust for Disgust’s
Sake
The
first type of disgust “incarnation” is apparent in contemporary art and recognized
by the name “abject art.” It operates with
strong realistic visual manifestations of the disgusting objects, such as feces
(Mike Kelley & Paul McCarthy, Secession,
1998); a disturbing mixture of disgusting substances, such as food, vomit, and
blood (Cindy Sherman, Untitled #175, 1978);
sexually obscene uses of plastic body parts juxtaposed distortedly (Cindy
Sherman, Untitled #250, 1992); or
mutilated and slaughtered bodies (Chapman Brothers, Great Deeds Against The Dead, 1994). Manipulation of such disgusting substances is an
essential part of most of these art works.
It
is the nature of disgust itself that is being analyzed here. For this reason, such art intentionally uses
those art forms through which the nature of the object can be more explicitly
presented, such as photography and plastic art. Its aim is to decode the psychological, social,
and cultural components of disgust. In
order to do this, it uses its own idiomatic style: the more violent the experience of the subject
matter, the more the subject matter presses on artistic presentation, and the
more we are forced to deal with it. Contrary
to Kant’s principle of aesthetic deception (for the sake of aesthetic
appreciation), such art demands aesthetic breakdown. The collapsing of the difference between reality
and art is needed in order to achieve the cognitive function at which such art
aims in order to bring art closer to every-day human experience. And disgust, by its strong physiological and
sensual nature, can perform such collapsing especially successfully.
It must
be understood that such examples of art works do not aim to be beautiful or
aesthetically appealing, and they do not require being such by their own definition.
Their artistic aspirations surpass the
aesthetic ones, which is to grasp the intellectual and experiential disclosure of
disgust. The artist, Jenny Saville,
indicates the motivation of such art by saying, “I don’t make paintings for
people to say we should look at big bodies again and say they are beautiful. I think that it’s more that they are
difficult. Why do we find bodies like
this difficult to look at?”[33]
As Saville points out, the art of
disgust investigates the meaning of disgust and the existential, philosophical,
and social issues that are provoked by it. Carolyn Korsmeyer writes that the most common
issues that the art of disgust interrogates are mortality, age, and illness.[34]
And Matthew Kieran puts forward the
importance of experiential knowledge that the art of disgust explores. “Through engaging with such art works we may
learn and develop our cognitive understanding of what certain human
possibilities would or could be like.”[35]
For
some of the art works this is true. For
example, the Chapman Brothers’ sculpture entitled DNA Zygotic (2003), which depicts mutated children’s bodies,
explores the issues of genetic damage and forces us to reflect on its experiential
possibility. And the more the creation
of disgust permeates our sense experience, the more imperative becomes the cognitive
inquiry into its essence. This makes the
art valuable and, to some extent, enjoyable, although the enjoyment may have
merely cognitive rather than aesthetic value. Because such art lacks positive aesthetic
aspirations in the first place, the representation of disgust does not destroy
its artistic function but completes it, and for this reason it can be a
successful artistic representation. Therefore,
the art does not contradict Kant’s fundamental principle of excluding
disgusting objects from the aesthetic realm, since such art does not aim to be aesthetically
pleasurable from the beginning. Hence,
it does not need to be preoccupied with the preservation of an aesthetic
illusion. This is, however, needed if
the purpose of art aims to elicit aesthetic pleasure, as Kant’s conception of fine
art suggests. It is challenging to
reexamine not whether the art of disgust is possible, since, as I have argued,
it is, but whether the aesthetic of disgust is achievable. That is, can there be an aesthetically
pleasurable representation of disgusting subject matter?
4. The Possibility
of a Positive Aesthetic of Disgust
There
are many examples of art works with positive aesthetic qualities in spite of their
disgusting subject matter, such as Frida Kahlo’s Without Hope (1945), depicting Frida lying ill in the hospital bed and
vomiting; Matthias Grϋnewald’s The Dead
Lovers (1528), depicting the bodies of a couple, riddled with snakes,
worms, and leeches; or Francisco Goya’s The
Disaster of War (1810), portraying brutally butchered bodies hanging from a
tree. How can the existence of an aesthetically
pleasurable representation of a disgusting object be consistent with Kant’s
thesis on the aesthetic dysfunctionality of disgust? In order to resolve this problem, we must turn
to Kant’s argument.
What
Kant argued in §48 is not that disgusting subject matter ruins the aesthetic
representation by itself, but it does so only if the object is depicted in such
a way that its repulsive nature forces itself on the aesthetic enjoyment of the
object and thus threatens it. This
happens when the nature of the object is represented so that it activates our associative
sensuous experience of it (by the means of imagination), which results in the
rejection of the representation completely. Because disgust is a strong visceral and
physiological emotion, we are unable, in such a depiction, to remain
indifferent to, or disinterested in, its artistic representation. In Kant’s words, this means that we are unable
to distinguish the nature of the object from its formal representation and
consequently to find it aesthetically appealing. The depiction of disgusting subject matter is
aesthetically dysfunctional only if its nature is represented in such a way
that it destroys disinterested reflection; that is, when our attention is not
focused on the imaginative representation of disgust but on its existence.
On the other hand, if the representation of the disgusting
object does not threaten its artistic image; that is, if we are still able to
retain distance to the nature of the object, the aesthetic representation can
remain successful. In this case, we have
a genuine situation in which the visceral reaction to the disgusting object has
been suspended. To remain in the mode of
disinterested reflection on the object is partly conditioned by the type of the
art form. For example, visual and
plastic arts are, in comparison to literary art, more sensitive to such
aesthetic collapsing, since they are more inclined to represent an object with
regard to its nature. This is
particularly true for plastic arts, and it is not without reason that Kant
suggested substituting any depiction of disgusting material in the art of
sculpture by its symbolic or allegoric representations.[36]
In the visual arts, photography is again
more inclined to provoke aversion than painting is (for example, compare the
portrayal of a naked old female body in the painting by Matthias Grϋnewald Death and the Age of Man (1540), and in
the photography by Andres Serrano: Budapest
(1940), or the depiction of butchered bodies in the painting of Francisco Goya,
The Disaster of War and as
represented by the sculpture made by Chapman Brothers, Great Deeds Against The Dead). On the other hand, literary art has the most power
to manipulate the beautification of a disgusting topic. This is because the representation of the
disgusting object through words is more distant from the appeal to our senses,
and hence we are more able to focus our reflection on the formal portrayal of
the subject matter. The more the
artistic representation of the disgusting matter is distant from the nature of
the object, the more its aesthetic appreciation can be successful.
Properly
speaking, there can be no positive aesthetic of disgust, because, by definition,
disgust contains a rejection of the object before an aesthetic evaluation of it
could even begin. Disgust by its own
logic contradicts aesthetic beauty because it contravenes the fundamental
condition of entering into aesthetic apprehension: the principle of disinterestedness. Aesthetic properties in general, as well as
disgust, are related to sensuous experience, yet disgust is an experience that,
contrary to pure aesthetic beauty (and ugliness), is essentially connected to
the cognitive ideas of contamination and putrefaction. For this reason, disgust is more attached to
the material nature of the object and to what it represents than with its
formal configuration, as beauty and ugliness are. This is evident from the phenomenological
experience of disgust, which is not a reflective experience but a visceral one;
we feel disgust with the entire body.
Even
in visual representation, there is a feeling of physical nearness with the
aversive object. Thus, when we do find a
disgusting object aesthetically attractive, as in the case of some works of
art, it is because we do not have a genuine disgust reaction but the
displeasure of disgust in which the original disgust reaction is suspended. What we have is a deceptive or “pseudo-disgust”
experience that is still painful, yet without the sensuous impact that would
destroy the aesthetic illusion. I
believe that such works of art, rather than being named “disgusting beauties,”
more properly deserve to fall under the category of what Korsmeyer calls the
phenomenon of terrible beauties, “…beauty that is bound up with the arousal of
discomforting emotions.”[37]
5. The Phenomenological
and Theoretical Demarcation of the Concepts of Disgust and Ugliness
In
the context of everyday discourse, there is a habitual use of the words ‘disgust’
and ‘ugly’ when referring to objects of displeasure, frequently interwoven with
each other when describing our dislike towards offending, incongruent, and distorted
objects. The concept of ugliness has a predisposition,
like disgust, to pervade moral evaluations and disagreements, much more than its
opposite, beauty, has.[38]
Leaving aside the semantic oddity of the
concept of ugliness, what I am interested in, in the context of this topic, is merely
its aesthetic function. That is, the use
of the word ‘ugly’ as we insistently employ it in purely aesthetic evaluations,
is reserved for the features of an object that do not fit together (as, for
example, hearing discordant musical tones or seeing an arrhythmic dance performance
or the image of an office building beside a beautiful gothic church). The evaluative word ‘ugly,’ as used in these
cases, refers to the judgment of formal discord or disharmony among features of
an object. It is thus a mark of negative
aesthetic judgment taken explicitly in the Kantian understanding of aesthetic
values.[39]
Disgust
and ugliness have in common a dependence on a negative feeling value, a feeling
of displeasure. Furthermore, this feeling
is in both cases intentional. In the
case of ugliness, it is a conscious response to the formal arrangement of
qualities, that is, to its disharmonious display. In the case of disgust, it is a conscious
response to the idea of putrefaction or contagiousness of the offending object,
and, hence, the feeling of displeasure in a repulsive object necessarily
alludes to the emotion of fear. There is,
then, a strict and apparent phenomenological difference between the feelings of
ugliness and disgust. While feelings of
danger and fear are essential for the emotion of disgust (which is, after all,
a defense reaction feeling), the displeasure of the ugly is an effect of a mere
dissatisfaction with the disagreement between formal qualities in which any
kind of reference to ideas or concepts is excluded. In order to find an object’s features
discordant, there is no need to know what the object is about (leaving aside Kant’s
category of dependent aesthetic properties). What matters is merely its formal appearance
as it affects our aesthetical common sense.[40]
Furthermore,
both disgust and ugliness have their own phenomenological feeling tonalities of
displeasure. An object can be more or
less aesthetically ugly, depending on the level of discord between formal
qualities. Likewise, an object can more
or less evoke disgust, depending on how strongly the idea of putrefaction
pervades it. We are usually less
disgusted at the sight of filth[41]
than at an injured body, although it also depends on the individual sensitivity
for the disgusting.[42]
That the concepts of disgust and
ugliness have different sources is evident more clearly from the fact that we can
find some objects strongly repulsive, without a trace of any pure aesthetic
ugliness (for example, snakes can be quite repulsive animals for many of us,
though in some cases they can exhibit high aesthetic beauty in the arrangement
of their colors, such as coral and corn snakes).
Also, the opposite is the case. There can be aesthetic ugliness for example in
listening to a concert, where players consistently play the wrong notes, yet
without any kind of trace of disgust. As
a matter of fact, dance and music (such as instrumental music) are the only art
forms in which disgust does not feature. The reason why the arts of dance and of pure
music cannot be disgusting is because they are merely a perception of pure formal
qualities; the play of bodily movement in space in the first place, and play of
sound in time in the latter.[43]
Disgust can be found only in the art
forms that are not merely expressions of pure formal qualities but where content
is explicitly involved.
This observation
reinforces the argument for the dissimilarity of disgust and aesthetic ugliness.
While ugliness refers exclusively to the
composition of pure formal properties of the object, disgust refers to the
meaning of the depicted, the idea that the object represents or embodies. Moreover, the fact that disgust can be found
merely in organic and biological items (or in items associated with them),
while ugliness is not limited in this way, supports the view of their different
natures. Disgust is inherent in the idea
of putrefaction (because only living things are destined to die), while
ugliness is in the formal configuration of an object.
The
conceptual demarcation of disgust and ugliness can be reinforced by Kant’s
appeal to the different cognitive faculties that disgust and ugliness employ. As he writes in §48, disgust depends on
nothing else but the imagination of the senses, while aesthetic feelings of
beauty and ugliness are partly intellectualized feelings. The aesthetic perception of ugliness and beauty
is a reflective perception. It employs a
mental state of free harmony (or disharmony) between the faculty of imagination
and the faculty of understanding. After
all, according to Kant, aesthetic pleasure (or displeasure) demands universal
validity, and it could not do that if not linked with the understanding, which
is thus indispensable for aesthetic perception. Aesthetic feeling is the feeling of a free
harmonious (or disharmonious) play between imagination and understanding; this
is the fundamental structure of its aesthetic purity and universal validity,
which is lacking in disgust. In the
light of these considerations, it is legitimate to argue that disgust and
ugliness, although both negative evaluative judgments, are dissimilar in the
most fundamental phenomenological and theoretical aspects. The feeling of ugliness is an effect of a
reflective mental state in which the faculty of understanding is necessarily
employed, whereas disgust belongs to the special domain of sensory experience.[44]
Nevertheless,
as Kant writes, the disgusting can be a mark of aesthetic displeasure, and,
hence, its jurisdiction reaches aesthetic territory also. In this context, disgust and ugliness both
characterize an aesthetic failure, though their approach differs significantly.
While ugliness, understood as pure
formal disorderliness, is a mark of so-called “inner” reflective failure, which
is discernible by a universal aesthetic dissatisfaction as an effect of interference
between the play of imagination and understanding, disgust is properly a mark
of a so-called “outer” aesthetic failure. An object that is disgusting simply influences
aesthetic appreciation from a non-aesthetic realm. The content prevents the possibility that an aesthetic
reflection even enters into our perception of the object. It does that by hindering the possibility of a
disinterested attitude to the object in the first place. To disinterestedly regard the object means, in
other words, to subsume it under the aesthetic apprehension that determines
whether the object is beautiful or not (depending on the harmony or disharmony
of aesthetic qualities through the feeling of pleasure or displeasure). And if disgust prevents the possibility of an
object to be evaluated aesthetically in the first place, that is, if the object
cannot be aesthetically evaluated at all, then a fortiori it cannot be
evaluated positively, that is, as beautiful. It is for this reason that disgust functions
anti-aesthetically, because it interferes with the aesthetic process “from the
outside”, that is, from the meaning of the depicted.
The
feeling of ugliness, on the other hand, does not interfere with aesthetic
reflection as disgust does but, on the contrary, is an outcome of aesthetic
apprehension. To evaluate objects as aesthetically
ugly is to acknowledge that the reflective operation took place and that its
outcome was a negative aesthetic feeling of ugliness (aesthetic displeasure),
which therefore must be regarded as a counterpart to beauty, more than disgust
is. An object that is aesthetically evaluated
as ugly can, by definition, never be regarded as beautiful, while an object of
disgust can exhibit, on certain occasions (when the aesthetic illusion between the
nature of the object and its representation does not collapse) aesthetic
beauty.
Both ugliness and disgust are
aesthetic counterparts to beauty and to aesthetic success. While ugliness as a negative aesthetic partner
of beauty is its proper opponent, disgust, on the other hand, is much more
resistant to beauty than ugliness is. Kant
nevertheless writes that there can be a beautiful portrayal of an ugly object,
but not of a disgusting one.[45]
Disgust is the most hostile opposition
to beauty, not because disgust would be the most extreme form of ugliness, but
precisely because of its different nature. Disgust is a sign of an immediate failure. In contrast to ugliness, disgust fails without
aesthetic examination. It is a symptom
of failure before even entering into aesthetic
reflection, just as a feces-like chocolate fails to be appreciated before even
tasted and sensibly evaluated. Disgust
is the enemy of beauty precisely because it prevents any aesthetic evaluation. It is a turn-off without even being
aesthetically inspected.
Mojca Kuplen
kuplen_mojca@ceu-budapest.edu
Mojca Kuplen is a PhD student in philosophy at the Central European University,
Budapest, Hungary. The primary focus of
her research is Kant's theory of aesthetics, particularly the problem of
negative aesthetic judgments and judgments of ugliness.
Published on April 7, 2011.
Endnotes
[1] Paul
Guyer, “Kant on the Purity of the Ugly, ” in Values of Beauty: Historical Essays in Aesthetics, ed. Paul Guyer
(Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2005), pp.141-162.
[2] Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, trans. J.H.Bernard (New York: Hafner Press,
1951), §48.
[3] Immanuel
Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point
of View, trans. Robert B. Louden (Cambridge: Cambridge U.P., 2006), p. 46.
[6] Paul
Rozin, et. al., “Body, Psyche, and
Culture: The relationship Between Disgust and Morality,” Psychology and Developing Societies, Vol. 9 (1997), 107-131; ref.
on p. 107.
[8]
Immanuel Kant, “Bemerkungen zu den Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen
und Erhabenen,” p.155, quoted in: Winfried Menninghaus, Disgust:
Theory and History of a Strong Sensation (New York: SUNY Press, 2003), p.
106.
[10] Aurel
Kolnai, On Disgust (Chicago: Open Court, 2004).
[12] William
Ian Miller, The Anatomy of Disgust (Cambridge,
Mass: Harvard U.P., 1997), p. 110.
[13] Immanuel Kant, “Reflexionen
zur Anthropologie” in Kants Gesammelten
Werken,
Vol. 15, p. 473.
[14] Kant,
Anthropology, p. 50.
[18] Paul
Rozin et.al., p. 110.
[19] Immanuel
Kant, “Reflexionen zur Anthropologie,” quoted in: Winfried Menninghaus, Disgust: Theory and History of a Strong
Sensation (Harvard U.P., 2003), p. 108.
[25] Carl
Plantinga, “Disgusted at the Movies, “ Film
Studies 8 (2006), 81-92.
[26] Kant, Anthropology, p. 71.
[28] However, no such communication between visual
and olfactory disgust is to be found. This
is because the activation of olfactory disgust does not need a presence of the
object. That is, we do not need to see
the object in order for its smell to be disgusting. Kant wrote that smell is “taste at a distance”
(Anthropology, p. 50). Consequently, visual representation does not
translate well the sense of smell.
[29]
Paul Rozin et. al, p. 115. Examples of such moral disgust, according to their
studies, are racism, hypocrisy, and brutality.
[30] For Kant, it is most important, when
evaluating an object aesthetically, to leave aside all non-formal properties that
would impinge on the disinterested aesthetic evaluation. Such an act of “aesthetic
insulation” is an act of reflecting on an object irrespective of its existence.
For example, flowers, which are for Kant
paradigms of natural beauty, should not be regarded in aesthetic reflection as
real flowers but merely as a picture of flowers. This presupposition of the aesthetic attitude
is highlighted in Kant’s saying that nature can be regarded as beautiful
insofar as it looks like art. See: Kant,
CJ, §45.
[31] Similarly, Miller emphasizes the idea of love,
in general, as one of the sufficient ways of self-overcoming disgust (Miller, The Anatomy of Disgust, pp. 132-142); and Kolnai pronounces sacrifice
for humanity as one of the factors of disgust’s transcendence (see Kolnai, On Disgust, p.88).
[33]
Drohoyowska- Philip Hunter, “Back to Painting, Thanks to Photos,” Los Angeles Times, January 13 (2002).
[34] Carolyn
Korsmeyer, Gender and Aesthetics (New
York: Routledge, 2004).
[35] Matthew
Kieran, “Aesthetic Value: Beauty, Ugliness and Incoherence,” Philosophy, 72 (1997), 383-399.
[37] Carolyn
Korsmeyer, “Terrible Beauties, “ in Contemporary
Debates in Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art,” ed. Matthew Kieran
(Malden, Ma: Blackwell, 2006), p. 52.
[38] For more
on the discussion of the multifaceted nature of the concept of ugly, see G.P.
Henderson, “The Concept of Ugliness,” The
British Journal of Aesthetics, 6, 3 (1966), 219-229.
[39] Kant does not much discuss negative aesthetic judgments or judgments of
ugliness, and there is a controversy as to whether the existence of ugliness is
even compatible with his general aesthetic theory. See Paul Guyer, “Kant on the Purity of the
Ugly.” However, for the purpose of this
paper I leave aside these discussions and take aesthetic ugliness to depend on
formal properties, as beauty does.
[40] This however does not preclude the possibility that
unpleasing concepts and ideas can be represented as elements in the overall
formal structure of an art work. That
is, an art work may represent unpleasant subject matter occasioning feelings of
pain, sadness, pity, and fear, or depict an ugly object itself, yet still be
aesthetically satisfactory. What
determines the aesthetic value of an art work is not the represented object,
itself, but the way it is executed, processed, or carried out. That is, even though the elements that
constitute the work are displeasurable and, hence, exhibit aesthetic disorder,
what matters aesthetically is the unified combination of these elements. Such works can therefore produce aesthetic
satisfaction. For example, Otto Dix’s
painting, The Salon I (1921), is a
depiction of old and worn-out prostitutes sitting at a table. While depicting their sagging breasts,
wrinkled faces painted with distasteful makeup, trying to cover up what old age
and a hard life have so brutally left on them, the painting elevates their
ugliness almost to the point of being grotesque. Yet even though it is painful to look at them,
the overall aesthetic experience is a memorable and powerful one. The painting is not merely an imitation of
their ugliness but a novel expression and understanding of it.
[41] Kolnai
explains the minimal feeling of disgust at dirt as the consequence of the fact
that that dirt is less related to the idea of life in decay but is merely a
sign that there was life. See Kolnai, On Disgust, p. 56.
[42] For
example, in the movie Repulsion, by
Roman Polanski, the main character Carol (Catherine Deneuve) vomits from being
disgusted by the smell of men's clothes.
[43] I am
referring here to the art of dance in the strict sense, that is, merely as an
expression of formal qualities, such as composition of bodily movements of one
or more dancers and all art of bodily movements that do not involve any other
activities or performances. Similarly,
in the art of music, I refer to music in the narrow sense, without any verbal
communication.
[44] This, however, does not suggest that disgust, after
its initial visceral and shocking experience has subsided, cannot occasion
reflection. On the contrary, disgust can
initiate reflective engagement; however, this is not a play between imagination
and understanding, as in the case of ugliness, but an intellectual reflection. An example of disgust’s occasioning reflective
experience is apparent in the recent controversial movie, A Serbian Film (2010), by Srdjan Spasojevic, which is an
outstandingly and constantly disgusting movie. The fusion of core (oral), animal reminder,
and moral disgust in this movie is intensified to the point where it is almost
unbearable to watch it. Yet, in contrast
to other movies, especially of the horror genre, where disgust has no other purpose
but the visceral experience it produces, in A
Serbian Film it also works as a powerful metaphor for the post-war Serbian
people’s political abuse. The experience
of disgust serves here as a sort of catharsis that is intended to open up emotional
and intellectual awareness, and understanding of the social, political, and
existential situation of the post-war Serbian people. Reflection occasioned by disgust is also
apparent in the infamous movie, Cannibal
Holocaust (1980), by Ruggero Deodato. The repugnance of the realistic depiction of
animal slaughter and psychical and sexual violence is supposed to work as a
critical commentary on Western brutality towards indigenous tribes and their
traditions. In both cases, the visceral
reaction of disgust is distinct from the reflection that it occasions.
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